Pregnancy health

Astaxanthin for pregnancy

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid antioxidant found in wild salmon, lobster, shrimp, krill and fish roe. It's what gives these foods their orange colour. Astaxanthin  is known for its anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and skin health benefits, and there are many potential benefits during pregnancy:-

• Protects against oxidative stress – Pregnancy increases oxidative stress, and astaxanthin may help reduce inflammation & cell damage.
• Supports baby’s brain & eye development – Works alongside DHA to protect fetal brain & retina from oxidative damage.
• Heart & circulatory health – May improve blood flow & reduce preeclampsia risk by lowering oxidative stress in the placenta.
• Skin & stretch marks – Helps maintain skin elasticity and reduce UV damage.
• Boosts  immunity – Supports a healthy immune response for both mom & baby.
• Astaxanthin blocks preeclampsia progression by suppressing oxidative stress and inflammation.

Carotenoids are fat-soluble pigments that help with oxidative stress. Recent studies have confirmed that oxidative stress can increase the risk of spontaneous abortion and other pathologies of pregnancy, including gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), preeclampsia, pregnancy-induced hypertension and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) as well as preterm birth,

What should a pregnant woman do?

• Eat QUALITY wild salmon, lobster, shrimp and fish roe.
• Astaxanthin is a very expensive supplement and you can never know the source. Don't take it!

Calcium for pregnancy

Each day, we lose calcium through our skin, nails, hair, sweat and excretion. So every day we must replenish our body’s supply by consuming 1g. Probably as high as 1.5g during pregnancy. Even if you consume plenty of dairy products, you may not be absorbing enough calcium due to low levels of Vitamin D and other essential nutrients. Milk, yoghurt, and cheese are rich natural sources of calcium. Non-dairy sources include vegetables, such as Chinese cabbage, kale, spinach and broccoli (but these all contain anti-nutrients).

• Pregnancy depletes calcium reserves to support fetal bone growth. During pregnancy, the baby absorbs up to 30g of calcium from the mother’s body, mainly in the third trimester.
• Calcium loss accelerates with age, so older mothers (35+) need more.
• Older mothers are at a higher risk of osteoporosis if their calcium intake is insufficient.
• If the mother doesn’t get enough calcium, the body will draw calcium from her bones, weakening them over time.

Less than 1% of total body calcium is needed to support critical metabolic functions and this calcium is very tightly regulated and does not fluctuate with changes in dietary intake. Your bones act as a reservoir for a constant concentration of circulating calcium. The remaining 99% of the body’s calcium supply is stored in the bones and teeth.

Calcium works with magnesium, vitamin D and K2

Calcium, vitamin D, K2, and magnesium all work together synergistically. Remember that Vitamins D, A, K and E are all fat soluble.

• Without vitamin D, the body absorbs only 10-15% of dietary calcium. With sufficient vitamin D, calcium absorption increases to 30-40%. It does this by stimulating the small intestine to produce transport proteins that move calcium into the bloodstream. Too much vitamin D without K2 can lead to calcium buildup in arteries, causing health risks.
• Magnesium is needed to activate vitamin D, which helps absorb calcium from food. Low magnesium = poor calcium absorption, even if calcium intake is high.
• Vitamin K2 helps regulate calcium in the body by activating proteins that bind calcium, ensuring it is deposited in the bones and teeth rather than in soft tissues, such as blood vessels or the placenta. A well-functioning placenta is essential for nutrient delivery to the foetus and overall pregnancy health.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• There is no need for a calcium supplement. Eat and drink a range of quality dairy products daily and aim for 1500mg+ daily:-
  • Always buy full-fat dairy. Ideally grass-fed (pastured, pasture-fed).
  • Dividing doses throughout the day helps improve overall calcium uptake. Take no more than 500-600 mg of calcium at once for optimal absorption (your intestines can only process a certain amount). The active transport of calcium Involves vitamin D and requires energy. This mechanism is more efficient at lower calcium concentrations.
  • Drink full-fat milk (250ml): 330mg.
  • Hot chocolate, made by mixing hot quality milk with organic cocoa powder, is an excellent source of calcium, providing about 320 mg of calcium per 250 ml serving. Cocoa powder is a good source of several essential nutrients, including magnesium, iron, and fibre.
  • Eat quality cheeses. For maximum calcium: Parmesan, Gruyère, Comté (1000+ mg per 100g). Münster cheese has 700mg/100g calcium along with a very high 801 ng/g vitamin K2.
  • Eat natural full-fat yoghurts (1 cup): 250mg. Greek yoghurts can be eaten with healthy berries and nuts. Try and eat a range of different ones as they contain different healthy bacteria.
  • Drink fermented full-fat kefir for gut health and its calcium level (250ml): 350mg.
  • Sardines (100g): 350mg.
  • Drink whey protein shakes (per scoop): 60mg
  • Avoid all plant-based milk and dairy products.
• Make sure you have your magnesium, vitamin D and K2 all covered.
• Avoid oxalate rich foods (such as almonds, plant-based milk, spinach, Swiss chard, rhubarb. bran flakes, bran products, cereals, oatmeal and flaxseeds). Oxalates bind with calcium and magnesium, stripping our bodies of these vital minerals.

Choline for Pregnancy

Choline deficiency during pregnancy can cause birth defects, as choline is required to help your baby's brain and spinal cord develop properly. Choline is critical during fetal development as it influences stem cell proliferation and apoptosis (one method the body uses to get rid of unneeded or abnormal cell). Thereby altering brain and spinal cord structure and function and influencing risk for neural tube defects and lifelong memory function. Choline is an essential nutrient that helps build brain membranes and synthesize neurotransmitters. Choline is found in the brain as acetylcholine (an amino acid buiding block) and phospholipids, which are important for brain function.

Pregnancy is a time when demand for choline is especially high because choline is transported from mother to foetus, depleting maternal plasma choline.

• High choline intake during pregnancy and early childhood can improve cognitive function.
• Choline supports placenta development and reduces the incidence of miscarriage.
• Choline is used in the synthesis of phospholipids, which are specialised fat molecules. The most common of these is lecithin which is a critical component of cell membranes. Every cell contains choline, it controls the normal function and structure of cell membranes. More than 90% of the body’s choline is stored in the membranes of cells, with only a small amount circulating as free choline.
• Choline is needed to produce acetylcholine, an important neurotransmitter for memory, mood, muscle control, and other brain and nervous functions.

Choline was once called vitamin B4, and is used by the body to burn fat. It's important for liver function, muscle movement, energy levels and maintaining a healthy metabolism. Choline reduces anxiety and is critical for brain development and nerve function. It's so important to life, that we must naturally produce it. However, we cannot synthesise enough choline to meet our metabolic needs, especially during pregnancy, and the balance must be gained from food.

What should a pregnant woman do?

There is no RDA for choline, but an adequate intake is thought to be 550mg per day for men and 425mg for women. But in reality, way more is needed with a therapeutic intake of choline being 1000-2000mg each day. The upper tolerable limit is 3500mg, or (3.5g). When a diet is deficient in vitamin B9 (folate) the need for dietary choline rises because choline becomes the primary methyl donor. You will also need more if you drink alcohol frequently or have a fatty liver.

• Eat lots of quality bacon, pastured eggs, fish roe, beef,  and poultry.
  • Beef liver (100g): 400mg. 🚨 avoid due to high vitamin A levels 🚨
  • Fish roe (100g): 300mg
  • 1 Egg :150mg
  • Beef (100g): 140mg
  • Pork & Bacon (120g): 100mg
  • Chicken (100g): 90mg
  • Prawns, salmon, cod (100g): 120-170mg
  • Vegetables, nuts and grains contain some choline too (as all cell membranes contain choline).
• Take a 1-2g supplement daily such as choline bi-tartrate.

Copper for pregnancy

Copper is an essential trace mineral that plays a crucial role during pregnancy. It supports foetal development, helps form red blood cells, and contributes to the baby's heart, blood vessels and nervous system. Here’s why copper is important during pregnancy:-

• Fetal Development: Copper aids in the formation of the baby’s brain, nervous system and connective tissues.
• Red Blood Cell Production: Works with iron to prevent anaemia and supports oxygen transport.
• Immune System Support: Strengthens immunity for both mother and baby.
• Collagen Formation: Supports the development of skin, joints, and bones.
• Antioxidant Role: Helps fight oxidative stress, reducing the risk of pregnancy complications.

The recommended daily intake for copper is 1mg per day for pregnant women.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• If you eat a well-balanced diet, you may not need a supplement. Here are some high copper foods (per 100g):-
  • Beef liver 9.8mg (eat in great moderation due to high vitamin A).
  • Chicken liver 6mg
  • Chicken liver Paté 4.5 mg
  • Oysters 4.4mg.
  • Clams 0.94mg.
  • Dark chocolate (70-85% cocoa) 1.8mg.
  • Cashew nuts 2.2mg.
  • Pistachios 1.3mg
  • Walnuts 1.3mg.
  • Lentils (cooked) 0.4mg.
  • Chickpeas (cooked) 0.35mg.
  • Mushrooms (shiitake, cooked) 0.9mg.
  • Kale (cooked) 0.4mg.
• A typical daily multivitamin contains 0.5-1mg of copper.
• Copper and zinc have an interesting relationship, as one of these elements causes the other element to decrease in your body. Roughly 2mg of copper should be consumed for every 15mg of zinc. Too much copper can interfere with zinc absorption, so maintaining a proper balance is important.

Inositol for Pregnancy

Inositol is frequently called vitamin B8, but it’s not really a vitamin. The body produces inositol in the liver and kidneys. It's a sugar alcohol that helps build cell structure and helps with mental and metabolic health. research shows that:-

• Helps with metabolic syndrome and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
• Reduces your risk of gestational diabetes and preterm birth.
• Lowers high cholesterol.
• Helps your body better process insulin.
• Relieves the symptoms of depression and other mood disorders.
• Promotes conception.

Inositol is also found in some foods and can be taken as a supplement. Your body needs inositol for the development and growth of cells. However, research suggests that inositol has many potential health benefits.

Studies show that taking an inositol supplement with folic acid during your pregnancy may prevent gestational diabetes and lower your risk of preterm birth. Pregnancies complicated by diabetes have largely increased in number over the last 50 years. Pregnancy often increases insulin resistance, which is associated with increased oxidative stress and inflammation. This has a negative impact on maternal and foetal health.

According to a research partner of Great Ormond Street Hospital, women at risk of carrying babies with spina bifida and other neural tube defects may benefit from taking inositol alongside folic acid during pregnancy.

Inositol content of foods

Inositol is common in citrus fruits, beans and vegetables. 500g of these would yield around 1g of inositol.

Beans (2.0-4.4mg/g), cantaloupe melons (4.35mg/g), oranges (4mg/g), grapefruit (2mg/g), pears (0.5mg/g), green beans (1.93mg/g), green peppers (0.57mg/g), tomato puree (0.77mg/g), cabbage (0.7mg/g), asparagus (0.68mg/g), artichoke (1.16mg/g), banana (1.35mg/g), avocado (0.46mg/g), peas (2.35mg/g), pumpkin (0.62mg/g), carrots (0.52mg/g), sweet potatoes (0.92mg/g), potatoes (o.47mg/g), purple onions (0.41mg/g).

What should a pregnant woman do?

The human body produces about 4 grams of inositol daily, primarily in the kidneys. But there are some factors which can hurt the body's production (eg. a high intake of glucose). Your body's production is much more than the average daily dietary intake of about 1 gram, although some people will get much less because of a poor diet. The safe upper tolerable limit for inositol is around 4 grams per day. Pregnant women should do the following:-

• Eat foods rich in inositol.
• Avoid processed food & drinks that are high in sugar, such as sweets, fizzy drinks and low-fat products.
• Take a 1g myo-inositol supplement along with folic acid. Inositol can be bought in bulk powder form. Studies (NIH) have shown that a dose of up to 4g of inositol per day has been well-tolerated by pregnant women without any adverse effects.

Iodine for pregnancy

Iodine is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in fetal brain development and the production of thyroid hormones. Pregnant women need more iodine to support their own thyroid function and ensure the baby’s proper growth and cognitive development.

Benefits of Iodine During Pregnancy:-

• Brain Development: Supports foetal brain growth and nervous system formation.
• Thyroid Function:  Helps regulate metabolism and prevents hypothyroidism.
• Prevents Cretinism: A severe form of intellectual disability caused by iodine deficiency.
• Reduces the risk of miscarriage: Ensuring an adequate iodine intake lowers complications.

RDA is 220mcg (micrograms) per day and the upper limit is 1100mcg per day (excess iodine is flushed out in urine). Vitamin D assists iodine function in the body.

The so-called Japanese dose of 12mg (milligrams) a day of one of the iodine forms is probably where you want to be for most nutritional requirements. It is very safe and considered optimal based on the good health of the Japanese who take this amount on a daily basis (due to seaweed and fish consumption).

What should a pregnant woman do?

Most people get enough proline from d

• If you consume dairy, eggs, fish, and iodised salt, you may be getting enough iodine from food.
• Many prenatal vitamins do not include iodine, so check your supplement label.
• If you’re vegetarian/vegan or don’t eat much seafood, an iodine supplement may be necessary.
• Seaweed sheets are a great source of iodine.
• Iodized salt contains 50mcg iodine/g salt. (Himalayan contains no iodine). So it's good to use an iodised version.
• Yogurts and milk are great too.
• One average serving of oysters (100 grams) has 50 micrograms of iodine.
• Iodine supplements are widely available (most multivitamins contain around 100μg). If you want to get the Japanese dose, then buying a 1% iodine solution (or a weak Lugol's solution) would be a wonderful cheap long term alternative.
• You should be OK if you eat a daily yoghurt, a glass of good milk plus a seaweed snack. Throw in a portion of oysters each week as well. A weekly visit to a Japanese restaurant (traditional, not the shopping mall type) would be very beneficial - you can eat Natto, miso soup and have an array of seaweed dishes with some oily fish.

Seaweed sheets (nori) are a great source of iodine and can be incorporated into your pregnancy diet in delicious and healthy ways. Here are some pregnancy-friendly seaweed sheet ideas:-

• Seaweed & Avocado Wraps: Spread mashed avocado on a nori sheet. Add sliced cucumber, carrots, and peppers. Roll it up like a sushi roll and slice it into bite-sized pieces.
• Nori-Crusted Salmon: Crumble nori sheets and press onto a salmon fillet before baking.
• Seaweed & Cheese Crackers: Layer nori sheets with slices of cheese and place on crackers or sour bread.
• Seaweed Guacamole Dip: Mash avocados and mix with chopped roasted seaweed. 🔹 Add lime juice, salt, and a pinch of garlic powder. Dip in veggie sticks.
• Nori-Wrapped Hummus Rolls: Spread hummus on a nori sheet. Add shredded carrots, cucumbers, and peppers. Roll it up and slice into bite-sized pieces.

Iron for pregnancy

Iron intake during pregnancy is crucial for both the health of the mother and the developing foetus. Iron is a key component of haemoglobin red blood cells, which is responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. During pregnancy, a woman's blood volume increases and the growing foetus and placenta also need iron, especially in the second and third trimesters.

Why Iron is Important During Pregnancy:

1. Prevents Anemia: Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anaemia during pregnancy.
2. Supports Fetal Development: Iron is essential for the baby's brain development and growth.
3. Reduces Risks: Adequate iron levels reduce the risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and perinatal mortality.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• Take an iron bisglycinate supplement (highly absorbable) with vitamin C. A pregnant woman could get enough iron (heme) if she was very conscious of her diet. But it might be worth supplementing. The NHS gives Iron Sulphate tables (200mg containing 65mg of iron which is a higher dose).
• Iron is found in two forms in food:
  • Heme iron: Found in animal products like red meat, poultry, and fish. It is more easily absorbed by the body.
  • Non-Heme iron: Found in plant-based foods like beans, lentils and spinach. It is less easily absorbed but can be enhanced by consuming vitamin C-rich foods (e.g., oranges, tomatoes, peppers).
• Heme Iron Foods (per 100 grams):
  • Clams: 28mg of iron
  • Venison (deer): 4.5mg of iron
  • Beef: 2.9mg of iron
  • Rabbit: 2.5mg of iron
  • Lamb: 2.1mg of iron
  • Chicken (dark meat): 1.3mg of iron
  • Turkey (dark meat): 1.7mg of iron
  • Oysters: 9.2mg of iron
  • Mussels: 6.7mg of iron
  • Squid: 3mg of iron
  • Sardines: 3 mg of iron
  • Salmon: 0.8mg of iron
  • Tuna: 1.2mg of iron
  • Shrimp:: 0.4mg of iron
  • Any unusual meats
• Clams are the iron kings! Clams are extremely high in iron because they store large amounts of heme iron. They are filter feeders that require oxygen for survival. Their tissues contain a lot of haemoglobin helping them store and transport oxygen efficiently. In addition to iron, they are rich in B12, zinc, and omega-3 fatty acids, which contribute to their overall nutritional density.
• Pair iron-rich foods with vitamin C.
• Avoid consuming calcium-rich foods with iron-rich foods as they can inhibit absorption.

Lutein for pregnancy

Lutein is a nutrient that's important during pregnancy because it helps with the development of the baby's eyes and brain.  Lutein is a carotenoid found widely in egg yolks, vegetables and some other plants. It's a yellow pigment, but in high concentrations, it appears orange-red.

The two major carotenoids in the human eye are lutein and zeaxanthin. They are often referred to as xanthophylls or macular pigment. In nature, lutein absorbs excess light energy to prevent damage to plants from too much sunlight, but in humans, we use lutein in our eyes to prevent UV damage.

It's quite incredible, that among the 1000+ identified natural carotenoids, only lutein and zeaxanthin have the ability to pass the blood–retina barrier and accumulate in the human eye. The presence of lutein and zeaxanthin in the eye relies entirely on the human diet. You must either get them from a range of lutein and zeaxanthin-rich foods or use supplements.

Lutein helps protect cells from damage and supports placental health.

Lutein is pretty much the only carotenoid in the brain. In an NIH-funded study, it was found that lutein was present in the brain and that it has a huge correlation with cognition and brain health. There was also a particular link with Omega 3, (DHA), working hand in hand with lutein in the brain. DHA is a long molecule with a lot of double bonds, and it can be easily oxidised. Lutein is thought to have a protective role with omega 3 in the brain.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• Eat eggs! While there’s no recommended daily intake for lutein, studies have found health benefits at a dose of 10 mg per day.  Pasture-fed eggs range from 1-3mg of bioavailable lutein in the yolk.
• Combining lutein with  healthy fats (like butter, olive oil or avocado oil) can help improve lutein absorption (lutein is fat soluble).
• Kale has high levels of lutein (20mg/100g), but in a less bio-available form. Kale does have some anti-nutrient drawbacks. but a diet rich in magnesium, zinc, iodine and calcium would offset this.
• Spinach has high levels of lutein (15mg/100g), but in a less bio-available form. The other issue with these is the VERY high oxalate content. But this can be greatly reduced by pre-soaking in a magnesium chloride solution.
• Pumpkin has 2-3mg/100g so consider a pumpkin soup.
• Peppers are good too. Green (1.5-2.5mg/100g) and red (1-1.5mg/100g).

Magnesium for pregnancy

Magnesium should be a priority for any pregnant woman as at least 350 enzyme systems in your body require magnesium for proper function. It supports foetal development and is crucial for the development of the baby’s bones, teeth, and tissues. Pregnancy advice, such as from the NHS, always covers magnesium, but it's terrible for 2 main reasons:-

• They recommend foods such as leafy green, nuts and seeds that are high in magnesium, but are also high in anti-nutrients that strip magnesium from your body.
• Magnesium supplements are often low-dose and are of poor quality (not very bio-available).

An adult body contains approximately 25g magnesium, with 50% to 60% present in the bones and the rest in soft tissues. Magnesium level is largely controlled by the kidneys, which typically excrete about 120 mg magnesium into the urine each day.

Low levels of magnesium during pregnancy have been associated with a number of conditions and diseases:-

• Poor bone formation and lower bone density in the baby. Magnesium is essential for fetal bone development.
• Gestational diabetes for the mother.
• Increased risk of neurological issues, cognitive delays, and behavioural problems later in life. Magnesium is crucial for foetal brain development.
• Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), meaning the baby may be smaller than expected. Magnesium is essential for fetal tissue development.
• Increased risk of preeclampsia & high blood pressure for the mother.
• Severe leg cramps, muscle weakness, and spasms, particularly at night.
• Preterm contractions and increase the risk of preterm birth. Magnesium helps relax the uterine muscles
• Higher stress, anxiety, and sleep disturbances during pregnancy.
• Constipation (a common issue in pregnancy).

The RDA for magnesium is 400mg from all sources. It can leave the body very quickly, so a regular daily intake is imperative. The upper limit is not set, but too much has a laxative effect.

Anti-nutrients deplete magnesium (oxalates and phytic acid)

Plants produce oxalates and phytates to deter herbivores and pests from eating them. Oxalates bind with magnesium and calcium, stripping our bodies of these vital minerals.  Calcium oxalate forms sharp needle-like crystals in the body that can cause irritation and lead to kidney stones. The following high oxalate foods should be avoided during pregnancy to prevent magnesium depletion:

• Almonds (nuts, milk and flour).
• Spinach and Swiss Chard.
• Rhubarb.
• Bran flakes, bran products, cereals and oatmeal.

Flaxseeds and bran (wheat/rice) are among the highest sources of phytates.

Magnesium works with calcium, vitamin D and K2

Calcium, vitamin D, K2, and magnesium all work together synergistically.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• Most people won't be eating a diet rich in magnesium so it makes sense to supplement with a QUALITY magnesium supplement.
  • Magnesium glycinate is great as it's bioavailable and contains glycine. The compound's total weight includes both magnesium and glycine, meaning the actual magnesium content is about 14% of the total weight. so you need a higher dose (3g to achieve 400mg of magnesium).
  • Magnesium malate is a compound of magnesium and malic acid (found in apples and other fruits). Malic acid plays a key role in energy production (Krebs cycle), making it good for people with fatigue and muscle pain.
  • Magnesium citrate is a good supplement with a greater laxative effect.
• Leafy greens contain lots of magnesium (because magnesium is in the green chlorophyll) but they also contain high oxalates. Oxalate content is slashed if the green are pre-soaked in teaspoon of magnesium chloride.
• Dark chocolate (70%+) contains good levels of magnesium.
• Best nut choice for high magnesium and low oxalate (per 100g):-
  • Macadamia nuts: Lowest oxalate (2 mg) but 120 mg of magnesium.
  • Cashews: Higher magnesium (260 mg) and still relatively low oxalate (49 mg).
  • Brazil nuts: magnesium 376 mg with a moderate 118 mg of oxalate
• Legumes are a family of nutrient-dense plants that include lentils, black beans, beans, chickpeas and peas. They contain a decent amount of magnesium.
• Multivitamins sometimes don't have enough magnesium (Centrum only has 80mg as Magnesium oxide, which is the cheapest and least bioavailable).
• Magnesium absorption is impeded with the use of supplemental iron (which is often given to pregnant women)
• If you take calcium supplements, your need for magnesium increases.
• Lactose is another inhibitor of magnesium absorption, so don't take a magnesium supplement with milk.

Omega-3 for pregnancy

Omega-3 fatty acids cannot be made by the body and we must get them from the diet. The three types of omega 3 important to the body are

• EPA and DHA from fish oils (the omega-3 our body really needs)
• ALA from plants (has some anti-inflammatory properties and helps with skin and metabolism).

The issue? The human body converts ALA into EPA & DHA inefficiently (only 5–10% to EPA, and 0.5–5% to DHA).

Benefits of DHA for pregnancy

DHA is a critical omega-3 fatty acid for pregnancy. It plays a key role in fetal brain, eye, and nervous system development.

• Brain Development – DHA makes up 30–40% of the brain's fatty acids, supporting cognitive function.
• Eye Health – The baby's retina contains high amounts of DHA, improving vision development.
• Reduces preterm birth risk
• Supports Mood – Helps prevent postnatal depressio.
• Healthy Birth Weight – Linked to improved fetal growth & birth weight.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• Try and get 600mg of DHA per day. The RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance) for DHA is not officially set, but health organisations recommend 250-600mg per day).
• Eat a variety of fatty fish (preferably wild-caught and not farmed). DHA content of fish (100g):-
  • Atlantic Mackerel: 1,400–1800 mg
  • Wild Salmon: 1,200–1600 mg
  • Cod Liver Oil (1 tablespoon): 900–1,200 mg (but watch for excess vitamin A in pregnancy).
  • Herring: 1,000–1,400 mg
  • Canned sardines in oil:  800 mg
  • Anchovies 600–1000 mg
  • Bluefin tuna: 500–1000 mg
  • Atlantic Cod: 150–300 mg
  • Mussels: 300–600 mg
  • Oysters: 200–400 mg
  • Fortified Eggs 100–150 mg per egg
• When people think about oily fish they often go for salmon, but the vast majority of salmon is farmed (artificially fed and dyed orange).

Selenium for Pregnancy

Low maternal selenium status has been associated with poor pregnancy outcomes, including:-

• Preterm births.
• Intrauterine growth restriction - IUGR (the fetus does not grow as expected).
• Miscarriage
• Preeclampsia (causing high blood pressure) from 20 weeks.
• Gestational diabetes (causing high blood sugar during pregnancy).
• Postpartum thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid after pregnancy).
• Autoimmune thyroid diseases in the fetus and mother.
• Neural tube defect.
• Reduced cognitive development, intelligence, and behavioural issues.
• Heart issues for mother and baby. Selenium exerted anti-oxidant effects in heart cells by preventing inflammation and apoptosis

Selenium is a mineral found in the soil and naturally appears in some foods. However, the selenium levels in foods have declined over the decades due to modern farming methods. While people only need a very small amount, it plays a key role in your body's metabolic processes and you need 55 micrograms per day. But you need slightly more if you become pregnant. The safe upper limit for selenium is 400 micrograms a day in adults.

Selenium is mostly known for its antioxidant properties because it's a necessary micronutrient in the creation of glutathione (the body’s principal antioxidant). Glutathione is one of the most important substances in the human body that is critical for detoxification.  Its production depends on the availability of several amino acids, along with available iron and selenium. Selenium also works in conjunction with vitamins E and C to prevent oxidative damage in the body, and with iodine to upregulate thyroid function and metabolic rate. Selenium is a known antagonist to arsenic, promoting the excretion of arsenic from the body.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• A combination of taking a multivitamin that contains selenium, eating a couple of Brazil nuts per day and eating a healthy diet (meats & fish) should more than cover your selenium needs.
• Selenium is sometimes included in supplements given to pregnant women (but most tend to focus on folic acid and iron), so please check the amount of selenium if you are taking one daily. Pregnant women often take a multivitamin so please check the ingredient label. For instance, Centrum Advance contains 30 micrograms of selenium.
• Brazil nuts are the richest known source of bio-active selenium. Even as little as 1-2 Brazil nuts can easily fill your daily requirement. 1 average Brazil nut contains 80mcg’s (145% RDA) of selenium. For a pregnant woman, cracking open a couple of shelled Brazil nuts would do the trick.
• Yellow fin tuna has 100mg per 100g (some tunas are high in mercury).
• Fish roe has 70mg per 100g.
• Sardines, halibut, red meats, and shrimp are also good.
• You shouldn't need a specific selenium supplement, but these are available online (eg Selenium Glycinate with a typical dose of 200 micrograms).

Vitamin A for pregnancy

Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin and a potent antioxidant. It plays a critical role in a baby's development:-

• Foetal growth & organ development – Supports the development of the baby's heart, lungs, kidneys, and eyes.
• Immune system support – Helps both mother and baby fight infections.
• Vision health – Maintains healthy eyesight and prevents night blindness.
• Skin & cell growth – Important for skin regeneration and healing.

We can get vitamin A from:

• Foods containing vitamin A.
• Beta-carotene in plants and vegetables (some of which converts to vitamin A in the body).

There is a lot of misinformation about vitamin A during pregnancy, with most organisations recommending zero animal-based vitamin A (the good stuff) and promoting plant-based beta-carotene sources. The only issue caused by LARGE doses of vitamin A is the effect on vitamin D. Vitamin D requires a small amount of vitamin A (retinol) in order to work correctly, but vitamin A and vitamin D attach themselves to the same cell receptors.

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is 770μg (mcg) retinol activity equivalents (RAE)/day. The RAE sounds complicated, but it's based upon the fact that animal-based vitamin A is 12x the activity of beta-carotene. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level for adults is set at 3000μg/day,

What should a pregnant woman do?

Too much vitamin A can be harmful, but deficiency is also a huge risk. Up to 50% have genetics (BCMO1 gene mutations) that give them a poor beta-carotene conversion to retinal. The best approach is to get some beta carotene from some everyday vegetables and a small amount from pâté or fish to ensure some retinol.

• Foods for Vitamin A (RAE per 100g)
  • Beef liver (100g): 8000mcg. ❌
  • Chicken liver has about 2/3rds of the vitamin A of beef. ❌
  • Lamb's liver has 1/3rd of the vitamin A compared to beef. ❌
  • Liver pâté. Not everyone is a liver fan, but pâté is a great-tasting alternative with similar quantities of vitamin A per 100g.
    A VERY SMALL QUANTITY OF QUALITY LIVER PATE WOULD DELIVER THE RETINOL VERSION OF VITAMIN A (1 TABLESPOON)
  • Sweet potato: 1400mcg.
  • Tuna (1 tin of bluefin): 700mcg.
  • Spinach (1/2 cup): 570mcg.
  • Carrots (1 medium): 450mcg.
  • Nori (seaweed 100g):  260mcg
  • Mackerel (100g): 250mcg.
  • Salmon (100g): 150mcg.
  • Red pepper: 150mcg.
  • Grass fed butter (1 tablespoon): 100mcg.
  • Egg (1 large): 80mcg.
  • Tuna (1 tin of bluefin): 700mcg
• Vitamin A is fat-soluble, so you need dietary fat for absorption.  Eat with with butter, olive oil, or avocado.

Vitamin B9 (folate) for pregnancy

Folate (Vitamin B9) is one of the most critical nutrients during pregnancy, playing a vital role in fetal development, neural tube formation, and DNA synthesis. Vitamin B9 is water-soluble and is naturally present in some foods, added to others, and available as a dietary supplement. Folate is the generic term for both naturally occurring food folate and folic acid.

• 400–800 mcg/day is recommended before and during pregnancy (many prenatal vitamins contain this).
• Folate is essential for the formation of the baby’s brain & spinal cord.
• Deficiency increases the risk of spina bifida and anencephaly.
• Folate is crucial for rapid cell division & tissue growth during pregnancy.
• Folate deficiency is linked to preterm labour & growth restrictions.
• Folate helps prevent maternal anaemia, which is common during pregnancy.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• Pregnant women must take a folate supplement to ensure a daily supply. Take the take 5-MTHF (Methylfolate) version.
• Folate is present in foods and these are recommended (per 100g):-
  • Liver (Chicken or beef): 550–1,000 mcg (in moderation due to high vitamin A content).
  • Spinach (Cooked): 200 mcg (only if pre-washed in magnesium chloride to reduce oxalate levels).
  • Black-Eyed Peas (Cooked): 210 mcg.
  • Lentils (Cooked): 180 mcg.
  • Asparagus (Cooked): 150 mcg.
  • Brussels Sprouts: 140 mcg.
  • Avocado: 80 mcg.
  • Oranges: 40 mcg.
  • Eggs: 50 mcg.
• Some mothers have a genetic condition that relates to mutations of the MTHFR gene. These mothers should take 5-MTHF (Methylfolate), the active form of folate, better absorbed by those with MTHFR gene mutations. 30-40% of women have 1 copy of the mutation and 10% carry 2 copies. The MTHFR (Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase) gene plays a role in processing folate and converting folic acid into its active form, 5-MTHF (methylfolate). Mutations in this gene can reduce the body's ability to use folic acid efficiently.

Vitamin K2 for Pregnancy

Vitamin K2 is a fat soluble vitamin that defines where calcium should and shouldn't go in the body. You need calcium to go to your bones and teeth and not to calcify the arteries (arterial plaque). Osteocalcin is a protein hormone found in bones and teeth and its synthesis is vitamin K2 dependent. A baby's bone development is therefore dependant upon Vitamin K2. Osteocalcin also acts like a hormone on many tissues to improve insulin sensitivity and blood glucose.

Vitamin K2 is essential for a mother's brain health and also the development of the foetal brain, primarily by activating proteins crucial for cognitive function and proper brain cell development. Vitamin K2 activates proteins like Gas6 (growth arrest-specific gene 6) and protein S, which are important for brain cell development, differentiation, and survival.

Our kidneys have high concentrations of vitamin K2, which is used to activate MGP (Matrix gla protein) to remove calcium and prevent kidney stones from developing during the latter stages of pregnancy..

In nature, vitamin K is found in two forms: vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) which is found in leafy, green vegetables, and vitamin K2 (menaquinone). Animals and humans convert vitamin K1 into vitamin K2 MK-4 using gut bacteria, but it's also found in organ meats, egg yolks, dairy products and fermented foods. A common route for K2 production is when cows and other animals "poo" on grass. The grass becomes a K2-rich food source which then gets eaten by ruminant animals and passed into their milk and fats. This is why eating full-fat dairy and meat from GRASS-FED animals is so important. A mother who is vegetarian or vegan is unlikely to be getting enough vitamin K2.

Low Vitamin K2 levels during pregnancy may be associated with an increased risk of intracranial haemorrhage in newborns (this is bleeding into the fluid-filled ventricles inside the brain).

Vitamin K2: and the relationship with vitamin A and D and magnesium

Vitamin K2, as with other vitamins and minerals, is best consumed as part of a nutrient-dense diet. Vitamin K1 and K2 are fat soluble, so they must be eaten with fat for best absorption.

Vitamins A and D are both activated by vitamin K2, allowing them to bind calcium to do their jobs. Weston A. Price in the 1940's was the first to discover the synergy between K, A and D vitamins, although at the time he referred to vitamin K2 as “Activator X,” since its true identity was unknown until 2007. He used a combination of cod liver oil, rich in vitamins A and D, and butter oil, rich in vitamin K2, to treat a variety of modern diseases. Magnesium intake is also important. Vitamins A and D induce gene expression, which is dependent on magnesium. Many people are deficient in magnesium due to a diet of processed foods.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• The best way to get K2 is via food. K2 is a fat-soluble vitamin so stay clear of low-fat products and dairy.
• Natto is a type of fermented soy that is widely eaten in Japan. It has the highest dietary concentration of vitamin K2 with a huge 850μg per 100 grams (1000%+ of your RDA). You can find it in some Japanese restaurants and supermarkets. It's an acquired taste and it's often served with a raw egg yolk and some sashimi (this might be a bad idea during pregnancy).  A serving suggestion might be natto + seaweed strips + a cooked egg + cooked salmon or tuna + chopped green onion + pickled vegetables. Natto is known to reduce the chances of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) during pregnancy. Natto can also reduce the incidence of eczema.
• Eat full-fat grass-fed dairy products, such as grass-fed organic milk.
• Eat quality eggs. The amount of vitamin K2 in an egg yolk depends on the hen's diet. If the hen's been running around in a field then the K2 content will be maximised.
• Eat hard cheese. French, Swiss and Dutch cheeses especially because they have high grass-fed dairy levels). Gouda has the highest content of vitamin K2 than any other cheese with approximately 20 mcg per ounce. Brie, Jarlsberg’s and Edam are also good sources. Other aged, hard cheeses have some vitamin K2 as well. With its high grass-fed dairy and vitamin k2 cheese consumption, Switzerland has the 2nd highest longevity rate in the world. The highest content of K2 in French cheeses was measured in Münster cheese (originating from the Vosges) with 801 ng/g total vitamin K2. Mediterranean cheeses typically contain tiny amounts of K2.
• Eat grass-fed butter and ghee.
• Use duck and goose fat. There's a huge jump in vitamin K2 values in pastured fats.
• Drink grass-fed kefir. 100g of fermented milk kefir can provide up to 13μg of vitamin K2
• Eat full-fat quality yoghurts.
• Eat fermented foods, such as fermented cheeses, sauerkraut and kimchi.
• Take quality cod liver oil (you have to shop around as most fish oil capsules are blended garbage).
• Avoid trans fats as they destroy vitamin K2.
• If you opt for a vitamin K2 supplement, make sure it's MK-7. Also, remember to take it with fat since it's fat-soluble and won't be absorbed otherwise.
• K2 consumption is particularly important in the last trimester of pregnancy.

Zinc for pregnancy

Zinc is required for the activity of approximately 100 enzymes and it plays a role in immune function, protein synthesis, wound healing, DNA synthesis and cell division. Zinc also supports fetal development, immune function, and cell growth during pregnancy.

• Zinc benefits hormonal health and fertility because it plays an important role in hormone production.
• Zinc impacts female sex hormones and is even involved in the creation and release of eggs within and from the ovaries.
• Zinc is needed for the production of estrogen and progesterone in women.
• Zinc helps both the mother and baby fight infections.
• Zinc supports the development of the placenta.
• Low zinc levels have been linked to preterm labour and low birth weight.
• Vegans, vegetarians & women with morning sickness may need extra zinc since plant-based sources are harder to absorb.

What should a pregnant woman do?

• If you eat a well-balanced diet, you may not need a supplement.
• If you are eating a zinc-rich diet, there still may be a need to take a zinc supplement. No more than 10-15mg per day, as you will also be getting some from food. The upper tolerable limit for zinc is 40mg. It's likely that your multi-vitamin contains zinc, so please check.  Copper and zinc have an interesting relationship, as one of these elements causes the other element to decrease in your body. Roughly 2mg of copper should be consumed for every 15mg of zinc.
• Oysters, crab, shrimp, lobster and mussels are among the best sources of zinc. When properly cooked, they are safe and nutritious during pregnancy.
• Beef, lamb, beef, chicken, and turkey are the best meat sources of zinc! Dark meat poultry (like chicken thighs) has more zinc than breast meat.
• Dark chocolate has a great zinc content. 85%+ dark chocolate is best, plus it has more antioxidants, iron, and magnesium.
• Eating foods rich in iron also decreases zinc absorption.
• Pumpkin seeds are often promoted because of their high zinc content, but they also contain phytic acid which binds to zinc.